Sociologists study human society and social behavior by examining the groups and social institutions that people form families, communities, and governments, as well as various social, religious, political, and business organizations. They also study the behavior and interaction of groups, trace their origin and growth, and analyze the influence of group activities on individual members. They are concerned with the characteristics of social groups, organizations, and institutions; the ways individuals are affected by each other and by the groups to which they belong, and the impact of social traits such as gender, age, or race on a person's daily life.
As a rule, sociologists work in one or more specialties, such as social organization, stratification, and mobility; revolution, war, and peace; racial and ethnic relations; education; family; social psychology; urban, rural, political, and comparative sociology; gender roles and relations; and sociological practice.
Other specialties include medical sociology the study of social factors that affect mental and public health; gerontology the study of aging and the special problems of aged persons; environmental sociology the study of the effects of the physical environment and technology on people; clinical sociology therapy, analysis, and intervention for individuals, groups, organizations, and communities; demography the study of the size, characteristics, and movement of populations; criminology the study of factors producing deviance from accepted legal and cultural norms; and industrial sociology the study of work and organizations.
Other sociologists specialize in research design and data analysis. Sociologists usually conduct surveys or engage in direct observation to gather data. For example, after providing for controlled conditions, an organizational sociologist might test the effects of different styles of leadership on individuals in a small work group. A medical sociologist might study the effects of terminal illness on family interaction. Sociological researchers also evaluate the efficacy of different kinds of social programs. They might examine and evaluate particular programs of income assistance, job training, health care, or remedial education. Sociologists extensively use statistical and computer techniques in their research, along with qualitative methods such as focus group research and social impact assessment.
The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, and others interested in resolving social problems and formulating public policy. For example, sociologists study issues related to abortion rights, AIDS, high school dropouts, homelessness, and latch-key children. Sociologists often work closely with community groups and members of other professions, including psychologists, physicians, economists, statisticians, urban and regional planners, political scientists, anthropologists, law enforcement and criminal justice officials, and social workers.
Some sociologists are primarily administrators. They apply their professional knowledge in areas as diverse as intergroup relations, family counseling, public opinion analysis, law enforcement, education, personnel administration, public relations, regional and community planning, and health services planning. They may, for example, administer social service programs in family and child welfare agencies, or develop social policies and programs for government, community, youth, or religious organizations.
A number of sociologists are employed as consultants. Using their expertise and research skills, they advise on such diverse problems as halfway houses and foster care for the mentally ill; counseling prisoners and ex-offenders; mediating labor-management disputes; or improving efficiency and flexibility in large corporations. Sociologists in business may consult with management to solve a wide range of problems and improve productivity and profitability. Sociologists can help companies plan for the future, deal with organizational restructuring and downsizing, and conduct market research for advertisers and manufacturers. Increasingly, sociologists are involved in the evaluation of social and welfare programs.
Sociologists often are confused with social workers, and in fact they do contribute to one another's discipline. While most sociologists conduct research on organizations, groups, and individuals, clinical sociologists, like social workers, may directly help people who are unable to cope with their circumstances. (See the statement on social workers elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Training in quantitative research methods is important for sociologists.
Most sociologists read, conduct research, and write reports, articles, and books. Sociologists working in government organizations, private firms, and nonprofit agencies generally have structured work schedules, and many experience the pressures of deadlines, tight schedules, heavy workloads, and overtime. They devote their time to research and the application of sociological knowledge and skills to solve organizational, community, and family problems. They often work as an integral part of a team. Some sociologists create their own private consulting firms and may work evenings or weekends to accommodate clients or complete a project. Travel may be required to collect data for research projects or to attend professional conferences.
Sociology faculty have more flexible work schedules, dividing their time between teaching, research, consulting, and administrative responsibilities. (See the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.)
All sociologists engage in analyzing ideas and data on how society works. Mental efforts can be tiring and stressful.
Outside of academia, where most sociologists are employed, sociologists held several thousand jobs in 1992. Some of these jobs were with government agencies, which employ sociologists to deal with such subjects as poverty, crime, public assistance, population growth, education, social rehabilitation, community development, mental health, racial and ethnic relations, drug abuse, school droputs, and environmental impact studies. Sociologists in the Federal Government work primarily for the Departments of Health and Human Services, Agriculture, Education, Commerce (Bureau of the Census), Defense, and the General Accounting Office. The also may work in special government agencies such as the Peace Corps, National Institute of Health, and the National Institute of Aging. Those specializing in demography, international development, or health may work for international organizations such as the World Bank, the United Nations, and the World Health Organization. Sociologists specializing in criminology work primarily for law enforcement agencies in State and local government.
Sociologists also hold managerial, research, personnel, and planning positions in research firms, consulting firms, educational institutions, corporations, professional and trade associations, hospitals, and welfare or other nonprofit organizations. Some sociologists have private practices in counseling, research, or consulting.
Most sociologists hold positions as sociology faculty in colleges and universities, or as high school sociology teachers. (See the statements on college and university faculty and kindergarten, elementary, and secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.)
A master's degree in sociology usually is the minimum requirement for employment in applied research or community college teaching. The Ph.D. degree is essential for most senior level positions in research institutes, consulting firms, corporations, and government agencies, and is required for appointment to permanent teaching and research positions in colleges and universities.
Sociologists holding a master's degree can qualify for administrative and research positions in public agencies and private businesses. Training in research, statistical, and computer methods is an advantage in obtaining such positions.
Bachelor's degree holders in sociology often get jobs in related fields. Their training in research, statistics, and human behavior qualifies them for entry level positions in social services, management, sales, personnel, and marketing. Many work in social service agencies as counselors or child-care, juvenile, or recreation workers. Others are employed as interviewers or as administrative or research assistants. Sociology majors with sufficient training in statistical and survey methods may qualify for positions as junior analysts or statisticians in business or research firms or government agencies. Regardless of a sociologist's level of educational attainment, completion of an internship while in school can prove invaluable in finding a position in sociology or a related field.
In the Federal Government, candidates generally need a college degree with 24 semester hours in sociology, including course work in theory and methods of social research. However, since competition for the limited number of positions is keen, advanced study in the field is highly recommended.
In 1992 about 190 colleges and universities offered doctoral degree programs in sociology; most of these also offer a master's degree. The master's is the highest degree offered in over 150 schools; another approximately 860 schools have bachelor's degree programs.
Most colleges have core requirements for sociology degrees, including courses in statistics, research methodology, and sociological theory. Other courses cover a wide range of topics such as aging (gerontology), criminal justice, delinquency, deviance and social control, family and society, gender roles, social psychology, rural sociology, organizational behavior and analysis, mental health, and science and technology. Some institutions offer courses in peace and war, conflict resolution, or world systems theory. Many offer studies focused on sociological analysis of such areas of Latin America, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, or Asia. Programs also may include internships or field experiences.
Some departments of sociology have highly structured programs, while others are relatively unstructured and leave most course selection up to the individual student. Departments have different requirements regarding foreign language skills and completion of a thesis or dissertation for the master's and doctoral degrees.
The choice of a graduate school is important. Students should select a school that has adequate research facilities and course offerings in their areas of interest. Opportunities to gain practical experience also may be available, and sociology departments may help place students in teaching or research assistantships, business or research firms, or government agencies.
Certification by the Sociological Practice Association (SPA) is required for some positions in clinical sociology and applied sociology, especially at the doctoral level. Candidates for certification must have at least one year of relevant experience, an advanced degree from an accredited school, and demonstrate competence at SPA-sponsored workshops and conferences.
Intellectual curiosity is an essential trait for sociologists; researchers must have an inquiring mind and a desire to find explanations for the phenomena they observe. They must have an open mind to new ideas and unfamiliar social patterns. Like other social scientists, sociologists must be objective in gathering information about social institutions and behavior and need keen analytical skills in order to organize data effectively and reach valid conclusions. They must get along well with people, especially in research, teaching, or intervention situations, and should have good oral and writing skills.
Most job openings in sociology are expected to result from the need to replace sociologists who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Additional positions for sociologists will stem from the increasing demand for research in various fields such as demography, criminology, gerontology, and medical sociology, and the need to evaluate and administer programs designed to cope with social and welfare problems. Growing recognition of the research and statistical skills of sociologists and the role they can play in solving a wide range of problems in business and industry may spur more job growth.
Opportunities in academia should be best for sociologists with a doctoral degree. The expected wave of retirements among college faculty, beginning in the late 1990's, should result in job openings for sociologists in colleges and universities. Those with master's degrees may find positions in community colleges.
Sociologists interested in practice (applied and clinical) settings will find that positions outside of academia are rapidly expanding. Some Ph.D.'s may take research and administrative positions in government, research organizations, and business firms. Those well-trained in quantitative research methods including survey techniques, advanced statistics, and computer science will have the widest choice of jobs. For example, private firms that contract with the government to evaluate social programs and conduct other research increasingly seek sociologists with strong quantitative skills.
Demand is expected to be stronger for sociologists with training in practical rather than theoretical sociology. Such practical areas include clinical sociology, criminology, environmental sociology, medical sociology, gerontology, evaluation research, and demography. For example, the growing need for family counseling and drug and alcohol abuse prevention and therapy should spur demand for clinical sociologists. Additional demographers may be sought to help businesses plan marketing and advertising programs and to help developing countries analyze censuses, prepare population projections, and formulate long-range public planning programs. Gerontologists may be needed to help formulate programs for our expanding elderly population.
Persons with a master's degree face keen competition for academic positions, but the master's is the most marketable degree for entering sociological practice. Opportunities for employment exist in government agencies, industry or business, and research firms. They may obtain positions doing market research, policy building, administration, or quantitative research. Often the title of sociologist is not used but program analysts, social science researchers, trainers, and maketing specialists are often titles appropriate for master's level sociology graduates.
Bachelor's degree holders will find their degree provides a solid basis for further study or for entry level employment in a broad range of fields media, public relations, corrections, social welfare, community activism, and even business. As in the past, these graduates will compete with other liberal arts graduates for positions as trainees and assistants in business, industry, and government. Some may find positions in social welfare agencies. For those planning careers in law, journalism, business, social work, recreation, counseling, and other related disciplines, sociology provides an excellent background. Those who meet State certification requirements may become high school sociology teachers.
Earnings vary with work settings. Experienced sociologists with a doctoral degree tend to earn the highest salaries in academia. Those employed in business, industry, and private consulting may earn more than those in academia or in government. The master's degree may be as lucrative as a doctorate in some settings outside of academia.
The Federal Government recognizes education and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the average entrance salary for sociologists with a bachelor's degree was about $18,300 or $22,700 a year in 1993, depending upon the applicant's academic record. The starting salary for those with a master's degree was $27,800 a year, and for those with a Ph.D., $33,600, while some individuals with experience and an advanced degree could start at $40,300. The average annual salary for all sociologists in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was around $53,300 a year in 1993.
In general, sociologists with the Ph.D. degree earn substantially higher salaries than those with a lesser degree. Some sociologists supplement their regular salaries with earnings from other sources, such as consulting, counseling, or writing articles and books. Those who create their own consulting practice find that earnings vary according to how much time they devote to their practice, the type of clients they serve, and the region of the country.
Sociologists are not the only people whose jobs require an understanding of social processes and institutions. Others whose work demands such expertise include anthropologists, economists, geographers, historians, political scientists, psychologists, urban and regional planners, reporters and correspondents, social workers, and intelligence specialists.
Return to Beginning of Page 
Return to Social Science Page
Reprinted with Permission of U. S. Department of Labor